There are four ways of gathering data:
1 LITERATURE STUDY
A thorough literature study is an indispensable component of all research. It familiarises the researcher with both research which has already been done in his field as well as with current research. A literature study makes the researcher aware of what the current train of thought is, as well as the focus of existing and acceptable thought regarding a specific topic. lt also helps him demarcate the boundaries of his research theme. When doing this, he finds ideas for his own research theme and for possibly processing his data.
The researcher also gains personally by his literature review. It fosters a certain attitude and leads to the attainment of certain skills:
* It develops the ability to recognize and select the significant and the relevant, without getting lost in trivialities.
* It helps in gauging the quality of research material and in planning his research accordingly.
* It develops a critical attitude regarding others' research as well as his own efforts.
* It trains him to be an astute observer especially in respect of certain obstacles, making it possible for him to avoid them.
* Knowledge of relevant literature helps the researcher to define the boundaries of his field.
1.2 The role of a literature study in research
The literature study helps the researcher to:
* select a research problem or theme. Relevant literature enables the researcher to discover where inconsistencies, wrong designs and incorrect statistical conclusions occur.
Often research reports are concluded with recommendations regarding research which still needs to done. The researcher's thinking can be shaped in this way, which in turn will enable him to:
* define the boundaries of his field;
* establish the size and extent of his research;
* consider the procedures and the instruments which he will use in his research. After having considered other researchers' procedures and instruments, the researcher becomes more sophisticated in the choice of his own;
* see his own problem in better perspective through a better understanding of the underlying theory. This enables him to establish whether his research will make a contribution and what the value of his contribution would be;
* avoid unnecessary (non-purposeful) repetition of research already undertaken. A researcher often develops a brilliant insight into how to tackle a problem, only to discover, through a study of relevant literature, that someone else has already done so;
* better evaluate the significance of his own findings. This applies especially in respect of which techniques were used, and which contributions were made to gaining a better understanding of the problem, etc;
* formulate his hypotheses with sharper insight;
* carry out his research more purposefully. In time he learns to eliminate the unnecessary. He learns from the successes and failures of others.
1.3 Types of literature
In studying works dealing with earlier (and acceptable) research, two types of sources, especially, come to the fore:
* Comprehension literature, ie books and articles by experts in which they state their opinions, experiences, theories and ideas on concepts and constructs within a specific problem area, as well as their opinions on what is good or bad, desirable or undesirable, valuable or worthless regarding insight into specific concepts or constructs. For the young researcher it is very useful because it helps him to understand the validity of correctness of theories (outdated, existing or newly formed) better. It also shows him where there are shortcomings in a specific field (thus requiring research). It also shows its strengths which he may wish to pursue.
* Research literature: This includes reporting in respect of research already undertaken in the field (and is currently drawing attention) and gives the researcher a good indication of successes and problems in respect of research procedures, design, hypotheses, techniques and instruments.
* The results of studying these two types of literature are thus a personal frame of reference, i.e. an insight into the body of basic knowledge, possible differences, underlying theories, et cetera.
* It furthermore leads to a greater awareness of those matters within the field which have already sufficiently been demonstrated and proved, as well as those matters still requiring more in-depth research.
1.4 Primary and secondary sources
Primary sources of a specific type of information are the original works, books, magazine articles, films, sound recordings, et cetera, which reflect the information firsthand. Secondary sources include commentaries, explanations, elucidations et cetera, which other writers have done on the primary sources.
It is desirable (especially in historical research) that, where possible, the primary source should preferably be consulted. T here are, however, problems with consulting primary sources.
* The source is out of print, has been destroyed or is unobtainable. Then secondary sources have to be consulted.
* The primary source is in a foreign language, rendering it inaccessible for the researcher. Translations have to be used with the expressed knowledge that such translations are possibly inaccurate or even incorrect. Sometimes it helps to read an expert's comment on the translation.
* The primary source is so complicated and advanced that the researcher cannot understand it. It then helps to read explanations in technical dictionaries, encyclopaedias or elementary handbooks.
This, does not mean, however, that secondary sources are of no value whatsoever. The researcher could possibly encounter many useful references to primary sources in his study of secondary sources.
1.5 Systems of documentation
Consulting specifically focused documentation systems can be very useful. These are systematically arranged sources of reference or literature dealing with a specific subject which have appeared. They have many additional references to related themes. The following are some examples of the most useful indices and/or sources of information:
* The Educational Resources Information Centre (ERIC) which has a "Current Index to Journals in Education" (CIJE) series. Every English article of any significance dealing with Education which has been written since 1969, has been included in this series and has been indexed and cross-referenced according to key words.
* The system of documentation of the "Deutsches Jugendinstitut" in Munich (Germany): All German and most English literature is read, briefly summarised, printed on cards and bound in a book. The cards can be torn out and filed. An example.
* The "Encyclopaedia of Educational Research" (very similar to the ERIC);
* The "Review of Educational Research" (very similar to the ERIC);
* The "British Education Index" (very similar to the ERIC);
* The Institute of Contemporary History (INCH) at the University of the Free State, Bloemfontein's documentation systems. At this Institute all South African magazines and newspapers are read, cuttings are taken and documented according to key concepts. RAU is linked to the system by telephone. If one dials a relevant number, the cutting appears on a television screen. Photostats (very indistinct) are available at 20 cents per page.
* The system of documentation and computer printout service of the HSRC. This contains printouts of research which has been done in South Africa in specific subjects.
1.6 Making notes
The following general guidelines should be useful when making notes:
1.6.1 Start with the most recent works and work back to earlier (timeless) works: your chances of adhering to outdated or faulty theories are then much smaller. Earlier misunderstandings and obscurities can be eliminated at this point. The recent works should lead you to older works by referring to them - not vice versa.
1.6.2 You should preferably start with the works of recognized writers dealing with the specific theme. For example, research on human thinking which does not refer to writers such as Ausubel, Fenerstein, Bruner or Piaget is incomplete. Then too, it would be unforgivable not to read the original works of such writers.
1.6.3 Further, it is worthwhile starting with articles, treatises and dissertations. This kind of literature is usually very well-documented and will quickly put you on the track of other relevant sources.
1.6.4 Before reading a source in its entirely, you should read the summary, precis or abstract of the book or article in order to ascertain whether or not it is at all relevant. This will save much time and will spare you much frustration.
1.6.5 Before making notes, you should skim through the whole chapter, paragraph or section in order to ascertain whether, and if so how, the section links up with your own problem. This will help to determine the kind of notes to be made. Much valuable time can be saved in this way.
1.6.6 Work on cards and not on scraps of paper. Write your notes directly on to record cards, and save yourself the double trouble of rewriting. (You will also eliminate the possibility of unnecessary errors made while rewriting your notes from scraps of paper on the cards). Cards (as a result of their stiffness and uniform size) are easier to handle and file than scraps of paper or the backs of envelopes.
1.6.7 For this reason, it is a sound habit always to keep a few record cards on hand (in the pocket of your jacket, in your handbag) so that ideas can be jotted down as soon as they occur. Such ideas may occur in the bus, while you are waiting to see someone, or while listening to a lecture or presentation.
1.6.8 You should select a comfortably sized card. I personally fine 150 cm x 100 cm (6" x 4") the most useful. It is small enough to fit into a jacket pocket and yet big enough to allow for plenty of information.
1.6.9 In order to facilitate filing and sorting, and to allow for flexibility, a single piece of information (thought, opinion) should be entered on a single card. You should preferably only write on one side of the card. In cases where more than one card is used to enter a specific argument (or episode), cards which belong together can be kept together by means of elastic bands.
1.6.10 The source and a relevant page number should be clearly entered on each card. This will later eliminate many frustrations.
1.6.11 Each card should have a suitable heading/key word. This facilitates filing and retrieving information. Apart from this, it already serves to structure the chapters of the research report.
1.6.12 You should try, as far as possible, to summarise the writer's thoughts in your own words. This eliminates the danger of plagiarism, and will force you to try to understand the information. You should only rewrite verbatim those thoughts which you cannot paraphrase better. In such cases you should ensure that you rewrite the quotation absolutely correctly. Each punctuation mark, each capital, must be correct. Be careful to spell correctly.
1.6.13 You should clearly distinguish on your cards if you have written (1) a direct quotation; (2) a paraphrased summary or your own comment.
1.6.14 Very long quotations should rather be photostatted and pasted on to the cards - this will save time and eliminate unnecessary rewriting errors.
1.6.15 Neat handwriting is not a requirement. Retyping notes, or first taking them down in shorthand and later rewriting them neatly, is an unnecessary waste of time.
1.6.16 You should plan ahead and acquire a sturdy filing system. Initially, shoe boxes are very useful.
1.6.17 A final remark - each source should be dealt with as accurately as if you will not handle it again.
1.7 What should be included in the literature survey (bibliography)?
* The sources which should be included depend on the final format of the research report. For example, fewer sources will be mentioned in an article than will be done in a thesis or dissertation.
* There are, however, timeless sources (e.g. Beknopte Theoretische Paedagoaogiek by Langeveld which was written in the Forties). Sometimes too, the researcher wishes to indicate an historical image of the rise of a direction of thought, and then he needs to reach far back.
2 OBSERVATION TECHNIQUE
Observation means that a researcher studies or observes a specific situation or type of situation.
2.1 There are 5 steps which together make up the observation technique (of the classic scientific method):
2.1.1 The natural phenomenon is observed
2.1.2 Conclusions are drawn
2.1.3 Hypothesis and premises are formulated or predictions are made. All three these are based on observations.
2.1.4 Subsequently a procedure is designed which may be used to test the hypotheses.
2.1.5 Further steps follow concurrently, as well as simultaneously: the further extending, refining and restructuring of existing/new theories.
This method developed rapidly once observation was supplemented by:
* the classification, organization and structuring of the observed information and
* combining observation and an evaluation technique.
This development was made possible by especially the development and use of aids such as the microscope and the television camera etc. Further, there was a gradual change from the observation of natural phenomena to the studying of simulated conditions in laboratories.
2.2 The technique of observation is especially suitable when research is comparative, evaluative, experimental or when it takes the form of a survey. However, it is a very expensive form of research and is mainly use for "deep" or "below the surface" investigations. In the case of surface research, the technique of questioning is preferable.
However a technique of observation can be used here too.
3 QUESTIONING
The four most important data-gathering techniques in which questioning plays a role are:
- interviews
- questionnaires
- check lists
- critical incidents.
3.1 Interviews
In the interview, the researcher talks to the respondent and obtains information directly.
3.1.1 Advantages:
a) Flexible. In-depth.
b) Situation can be adapted.
c) Reasons for answers can be sought.
d) Clues can be followed up.
e) Yields a higher percentage of answering.
3.1.2 Disadvantages:
a) Time.
b) Costs.
c) Difficult to analyse responses.
d) Subjectivity.
3.2 Types of questions
Structured or unstructured.
3.3 The questionnaire
The questionnaire is usually more superficial than the interview. It is usually used in group work. The questionnaire is especially useful to obtain information about reasonably big groups.
3.3.1 Advantages:
a) Relatively low costs.
b) Can involve large groups.
c) Usually information that can be easily interpreted.
d) Each question is answered.
3.3.2 Disadvantages:
a) Inflexible.
b) Information not in great depth.
c) Individuals may ignore the questionnaire.
3.3.3 Types of questions (Interviews and questionnaires)
Closed questions
Only indicated responses are allowed.
Open-ended questions
Any response is allowed.
4 THE CHECK LIST
If a researcher has ensured that he has made provision for all the possible alternatives to each question, and that the respondent need merely tick the answer, the questionnaire is called a check list. A check list is structured and the questions are closed.
4.1 Advantages:
a) Convenient to answer.
b) The statistical processing of data is uniform.
4.2 Disadvantages:
The respondent may be irritated by not being able to find his specific chosen answer among the given alternatives.
4.3 Critical incident
This is used if the researcher wishes to gauge in great depth what the respondent's opinion is or how he feels about a matter. A situation (incident) is presented to the respondent, who must then voice his opinion.
5 THE TECHNIQUE OF MEASURING
Often the information which the researcher hopes to obtain is so difficult to obtain that he/she prefers to use existing media to "measure" (or, stated in anthropological-personological terms: to evaluate the respondent's position with regard to some or other construct).
5.1 One of the most common forms of measuring is physical measuring, e.g. the mass, length of a child; his endurance, as reflected by the number of push-ups which he can do in one stretch; his nutritional condition as reflected by the thickness of the skin when tested at the triceps.
5.2 Then there are numerous objective tests used in educational research. Here one distinguishes between:
* aptitude tests
* proficiency tests
* achievement tests.